Remote Sensing and GIS
-10%
portes grátis
Remote Sensing and GIS
Bhatta, Basudeb
OUP India
01/2021
752
Mole
Inglês
9780199496648
15 a 20 dias
980
Descrição não disponível.
1. Concept of Remote Sensing
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Distance of Remote Sensing
1.3 Definition of Remote Sensing
1.4 Remote Sensing: Art and/or Science
1.5 Data
1.5.1 In Situ Data
1.5.2 Remotely Sensed Data
1.6 Remote Sensing Process
1.7 Source of Energy
1.7.1 Concept of Energy
1.7.2 Electromagnetic Radiation
1.7.3 Electromagnetic Spectrum
1.8 Interaction with Atmosphere
1.8.1 Absorption
1.8.2 Scattering
1.8.3 Refraction
1.8.4 Reflection
1.9 Interaction with Target
1.9.1 Hemispherical Absorptance, Transmittance, and Reflectance
1.9.2 Spectral Reflectance Curve
1.10 Interaction with the Atmosphere Again
1.11 Recording of Energy by Sensor
1.11.1 Target and Path Radiance
1.12 Transmission, Reception, and Processing
1.13 Interpretation and Analysis
1.13.1 Visual Image Interpretation
1.13.2 Digital Image Processing
1.14 Applications of Remote Sensing
1.15 Advantages of Remote Sensing
1.16 Limitations of Remote Sensing
1.17 Ideal Remote Sensing System
2. Types of Remote Sensing and Sensor Characteristics
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Types of Remote Sensing
2.2.1 Classification Based on Platform
2.2.2 Classification Based on Energy Source
2.2.3 Classification Based on Imaging Media
2.2.4 Classification Based on the Regions of Electromagnetic Spectrum
2.2.5 Classification Based on Number of Bands
2.3 Characteristics of Images
2.4 Orbital Characteristics of Satellite
2.4.1 Orbit of Remote Sensing Satellite
2.5 Remote Sensing Satellites
2.6 Concept of Swath
2.7 Concept of Nadir
2.8 Sensor Resolutions
2.8.1 Spatial Resolution
2.8.2 Spectral Resolution
2.8.3 Radiometric Resolution
2.8.4 Temporal Resolution
2.9 Image Referencing System
2.9.1 Path
2.9.2 Row
2.9.3 Orbital Calendar
3. History of Remote Sensing and Indian Space Program
3.1 Introduction
3.2 The Early Age
3.3 The Middle Age
3.4 The Modern Age or Space Age
3.5 Indian Space Program
3.5.1 DOS and ISRO
3.5.2 NRSC
3.5.3 Indian Launch Programs
4. Photographic Imaging
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Camera Systems
4.2.1 Components of Aerial Metric Camera
4.2.2 Photographic Parameters
4.3 Types of Camera
4.3.1 Metric Cameras
4.3.2 Multiple-lens (or Multi- spectral or Multiple-band) Cameras
4.3.3 Panoramic Cameras
4.3.4 Strip Cameras
4.3.5 Large Format Cameras
4.4 Filter
4.4.1 Absorption Filter
4.4.2 Interference Filter
4.4.3 Anti-vignetting Filter
4.4.4 UV Filter and Skylight Filter
4.4.5 Haze Filter
4.4.6 Polarizing Filter
4.5 Film
4.5.1 Types of Film
4.5.2 Film Size
4.5.3 Film Resolution
4.5.4 Processing of Black-and-White Film
4.5.5 Processing of Colour Film
4.5.6 Digitization of Film
4.6 Geometry of Aerial Photography
4.6.1 Scale of Photograph
4.6.2 Vantage Point
4.7 Ideal Time and Atmosphere for Aerial Remote Sensing
5. Digital Imaging
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Digital Image
5.3 Sensor
5.3.1 Dispersing Element
5.3.2 Filter
5.3.3 Spectrometer and Spectroradiometer
5.3.4 Detectors
5.4 Imaging by Scanning Technique
5.4.1 Across-track Scanning
5.4.2 Along-track Scanning
5.5 Hyper-spectral Imaging
5.5.1 Airborne Visible Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS)
5.5.2 Compact Airborne Spectrographic Imager-2 (CASI-2)
5.5.3 Compact High Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (CHRIS)
5.6 Imaging By Non-scanning Technique
5.7 Thermal Remote Sensing
5.7.1 Radiant versus Kinetic Temperature
5.7.2 Blackbody Radiation
5.7.3 Thermal Imaging
5.7.4 Thermal Properties
5.7.5 Thermal Image and Temperature Mapping
5.7.6 Thermal Remote Sensing Sensors
5.8 Other Sensors
6. Microwave Remote Sensing
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Passive Microwave Remote Sensing
6.2.1 Passive Microwave Imagers
6.3 Active Microwave Remote Sensing
6.4 Radar Imaging
6.4.1 Frequency/Wavelength
6.4.2 Polarization
6.4.3 Viewing Geometry
6.4.4 Spatial Resolution of Radar System
6.4.5 Speckle
6.4.6 Surface Geometry
6.4.7 Surface Roughness
6.4.8 Dielectric Properties
6.5 Airborne Versus Space-Borne Radars
6.6 Radar Systems
6.6.1 RISAT - 1
7. Ground-truth Data and Global Positioning System
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Requirements of Ground-Truth Data
7.3 Instruments for Ground Truthing
7.4 Parameters of Ground Truthing
7.4.1 Atmospheric Conditions
7.4.2 Surface Water
7.4.3 Vegetation
7.4.4 Soil, Bare Ground, and Rock
7.4.5 Dark and Light Calibration Targets
7.5 Factors of Spectral Measurement
7.5.1 Sun Angles
7.5.2 Cloud Condition
7.5.3 Aerosol, Haze, and Water Vapour
7.5.4 Topography
7.5.5 Shadows
7.6 Global Navigation Satellite System
7.6.1 Satellite-based Navigation and Positioning Systems
7.6.2 Functional Segments of GPS
7.6.3 Working Principle of GPS
7.6.4 GPS Signals
7.6.5 Errors of GPS
7.6.6 Positioning Methods
7.6.7 Differential Global Positioning System
7.6.8 GPS Receivers
7.6.9 Applications of GNSS
8. Photogrammetry
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Development of Photogrammetry
8.3 Classification of Photogrammetry
8.4 Photogrammetric Process
8.5 Acquisition of Imagery and its Support Data
8.5.1 Acquisition of Imagery Using Aerial Platform
8.5.2 Acquisition of Imagery Using Satellite Platform
8.5.3 Control Surveys
8.5.4 Geometric Distortion in Imagery
8.6 Orientation and Triangulation
8.6.1 Coordinate Systems
8.6.2 Orientation
8.6.3 Block Triangulation
8.6.4 Transformation
8.7 Stereo Model Compilation
8.8 Stereoscopic 3D Viewing
8.8.1 Stereoscopic Viewing in Analog Photogrammetry
8.9 Stereoscopic Measurement
8.9.1 x-Parallax
8.9.2 y-parallax
8.10 DTM/DEM Generation
8.11 Contour Map Generation
8.12 Orthorectification
8.13 3D Feature Extraction
8.14 3D Scene Modelling
8.15 Photogrammetry and LiDAR
8.16 Radargrammetry and Radar Interferometry
8.17 Limitations of Photogrammetry
9. Visual Image Interpretation
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Information Extraction by Human and Computer
9.3 Remote Sensing Data Products
9.4 Border or Marginal Information
9.5 Image Interpretation
9.6 Elements of Visual Image Interpretation
9.6.1 Location
9.6.2 Size
9.6.3 Shape
9.6.4 Shadow
9.6.5 Tone
9.6.6 Colour
9.6.7 Texture
9.6.8 Pattern
9.6.9 Height and Depth
9.6.10 Site, Situation, and Association
9.7 Interpretation Keys
9.8 Generation of Thematic Maps
9.9 Thermal Image Interpretation
9.9.1 Diurnal Heating Effects
9.9.2 Thermal Properties of Water and Land
9.9.3 Interpretation of Multispectral Thermal Image
9.10 Radar Image Interpretation
9.10.1 Tone
9.10.2 Colour
9.10.3 Shape, Structure, and Size
9.10.4 Speckle
9.10.5 Antenna Pattern
9.10.6 Texture
10. Digital Image Processing
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Categorization of Image Processing
10.3 Image Processing Systems
10.4 Digital Image
10.5 Media for Digital Data Recording, Storage, and Distribution
10.6 Data Formats of Digital Image
10.7 Header Information
10.8 Display of Digital Image
10.9 Pre-processing
10.9.1 Radiometric Correction of Remotely Sensed Data
10.9.2 Geometric Correction of Remotely Sensed Data
10.9.3 Miscellaneous Pre-processing
10.10 Image Enhancement
10.10.1 Image Reduction
10.10.2 Image Magnification
10.10.3 Colour Compositing
10.10.4 Transect Extraction
10.10.5 Contrast Enhancement
10.10.6 Filtering
10.11 Image Transformation
10.11.1 Image Arithmetic Operations
10.11.2 Principal Component Transformation
10.11.3 Tasselled Cap Transformation (KT Transformation)
10.11.4 Colour Space Transformation
10.11.5 Fourier Transformation
10.11.6 Image Fusion
10.12 Image Classification
10.12.1 Information Class and Spectral Class
10.12.2 Supervised Versus Unsupervised Classification
10.12.3 Decision Rules for Supervised Classification
10.12.4 Decision Rules for Unsupervised Classification
10.12.5 Subpixel Classification
10.12.6 Accuracy Assessment
10.12.7 Post-classification Processing
11. Data Integration, Analysis, and Presentation
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Multi-approach of Remote Sensing
11.2.1 MultiSensor, Multiplatform, and MultiResolution Images
11.2.2 Multi-Spectral Images
11.2.3 MultiTemporal/MultiSeasonal Images
11.2.4 Multistage, Multiplatform, MultiScale, and MultiResolution
11.2.5 MultiSource Data
11.3 Integration with Ground Truth and Other Ancillary Data
11.4 Integration of Transformed Data
11.5 Integration with GIS
11.6 Process of Remote Sensing Data Analysis
11.7 The Level of Detail
11.8 Limitations of Remote Sensing Data Analysis
11.9 Presentation
12. Applications of Remote Sensing
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Land Cover and Land Use
12.2.1 Land-use/Land-cover Change
12.2.2 Land-cover Mapping
12.3 Agriculture
12.3.1 Crop Type Mapping
12.3.2 Crop Monitoring and Crop Damage Assessment
12.4 Forestry
12.4.1 Clear-cut Mapping and Deforestation
12.4.2 Species Identification and Typing
12.4.3 Burn Mapping
12.5 Geology
12.5.1 Structural Mapping and Terrain Analysis
12.5.2 Lineament Extraction
12.5.3 Geologic Unit Mapping
12.6 Geomorphology
12.7 Urban Applications
12.8 Hydrology
12.8.1 Flood Delineation and Mapping
12.8.2 Soil Moisture
12.8.3 Groundwater Prospects and Recharge
12.9 Mapping
12.9.1 Planimetry
12.9.2 Digital Elevation Models
12.9.3 Topographic and BTM
12.10 Oceans and Coastal Monitoring
12.10.1 Ocean Features
12.10.2 Ocean Colour and Phytoplankton Concentration
12.10.3 Measurement of SST
12.10.4 Oil Spill Detection
12.10.5 Sea-Surface Height
12.10.6 Sea-Surface Roughness
12.10.7 Ship Routing
12.10.8 Sea Ice
12.11 Monitoring of Atmospheric Constituents
PART II Geographic Information Systems and Geospatial Analysis
13. Concept of Geographic Information Systems
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Definitions of GIS
13.3 Key Components of GIS
13.4 GIS-An Integration of Spatial and Attribute Information
13.5 GIS-Three Views of Information System
13.6 GIS and Related Terms
13.7 GIS-A Knowledge Hub
13.7.1 Geography
13.7.2 Cartography
13.7.3 Remote Sensing
13.7.4 Photogrammetry
13.7.5 Surveying
13.7.6 Geodesy
13.7.7 Global Navigation Satellite Systems
13.7.8 Statistics
13.7.9 Operations Research
13.7.10 Computer Science
13.7.11 Mathematics
13.7.12 Civil Engineering
13.8 GIS-A Set of Interrelated Subsystems
13.8.1 Data Processing Subsystem
13.8.2 Data Analysis Subsystem
13.8.3 Information Use Subsystem
13.8.4 Management Subsystem
13.8.5 Communication Subsystem
13.9 GIS-An Information Infrastructure
13.10 Origin of GIS
14. Functions and Advantages of GIS
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Functions of GIS
14.3 Application Areas of GIS
14.4 Advantages of GIS
14.4.1 Advantage over Traditional Map
14.4.2 Advantage over Mapping Software
14.4.3 Advantage over CAD
14.4.4 Advantage over AM/FM
14.4.5 Advantage over Conventional DBMS
14.4.6 Advantage of Analysis, Modelling, Presentation, and Decision Making
14.5 Functional Requirements of GIS
14.5.1 Relating Information from Different Sources
14.5.2 Data Capture
14.5.3 Database Storage and Management
14.5.4 Data Integration
14.5.5 Projection and Registration
14.5.6 Data Structures
14.5.7 Spatial Analysis
14.5.8 Data Modelling
14.5.9 Presenting Results
14.6 Limitations of GIS
15. Spatial Data Model
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Spatial, Thematic, and Temporal Dimensions of Geographic Data
15.3 Spatial Entity and Object
15.4 Spatial Data Model
15.4.1 Conceptual Data Model
15.4.2 Logical Data Model
15.4.3 Object-oriented Data Model
15.5 Raster Data Model
15.5.1 Field-based Raster Model
15.5.2 Object-based Raster Model
15.6 Vector Data Model
15.6.1 Object-based Vector Model
15.6.2 Field-based Vector Model
15.7 Raster versus Vector
15.8 Object-Oriented Data Model
15.8.1 Classification of Objects
15.9 File Formats of Spatial Data
16. Attribute Data Management and Metadata Concept
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Concept of Database and DBMS
16.2.1 Tables
16.2.2 Queries
16.2.3 Reports
16.2.4 Forms
16.3 Advantages of DBMS
16.4 Functions of DBMS
16.5 File and Data Access
16.5.1 Simple List
16.5.2 Ordered Sequential File
16.5.3 Indexed File
16.5.4 Databases
16.6 Data Models
16.7 Database Models
16.7.1 Object-based Model
16.7.2 Record-based Model
16.7.3 Physical Model
16.8 Data Models in GIS
16.9 Concept of SQL
16.10 Concept of Metadata
16.10.1 Role of Metadata in GIS
16.10.2 Metadata Standards
16.10.3 Metadata Formats
16.10.4 Questions to be Answered to Create Metadata
17. Process of GIS
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Data Capture
17.3 Data Sources
17.3.1 Conventional Analog Map Sources
17.3.2 Reports and Publications
17.3.3 Aerial Remote Sensing/Aerial Photography
17.3.4 Satellite Remote Sensing
17.3.5 Field Data Sources
17.3.6 Existing Digital Map Sources
17.4 Data Encoding Methods
17.4.1 Encoding Raster Data
17.4.2 Encoding Vector Data
17.4.3 Verification and Quality Checking of Vector Data
17.4.4 Vector Editing/Cleaning
17.4.5 Encoding Attribute Data
17.4.6 Digital File/Data Transfer
17.5 Linking of Spatial and Attribute Data
17.6 Organizing Data for Analysis
18. Geospatial Analysis
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Geospatial Data Analysis
18.3 Integration and Modelling of Spatial Data
18.4 Geospatial Data Analysis Methods
18.5 Database Query
18.5.1 Vector Data Query
18.5.2 Raster Data Query
18.6 Geospatial Measurements
18.6.1 Measurement of Density
18.6.2 Measurement of Distance
18.6.3 Measurement of Neighbourhood
18.7 Overlay Operations
18.7.1 Vector Overlay
18.7.2 Raster Overlay
18.8 Network Analysis
18.8.1 Network Tracing
18.8.2 Network Routing
18.8.3 Network Allocation
18.9 Surface Analysis
18.9.1 Deriving Contours/Isolines
18.9.2 Deriving Slope
18.9.3 Deriving Aspect
18.9.4 Hillshade Analysis
18.9.5 Viewshed Analysis
18.9.6 Watershed Analysis
18.9.7 Surface Intersection
18.10 Geostatistics
18.11 Geovisualization
18.11.1 Classification and Reclassification
18.11.2 Map Comparison
18.11.3 Chart
18.11.4 Report
18.11.5 Layout
18.11.6 3D Visualization
19. Planning, Implementation, and Management of GIS
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Planning of Project
19.2.1 Considering the Strategic Purpose
19.2.2 Plan for the Planning
19.2.3 Determine Technology Requirements
19.2.4 Describing Information Products
19.2.5 Defining System Scope
19.2.6 Designing Database
19.2.7 Choosing Logical Data Model
19.2.8 Determining System Requirements
19.2.9 Analysing Benefits and Costs
19.2.10 Implementation Plan
19.3 Implementation of Project
19.3.1 Procurement of Hardware and Software
19.3.2 Organization of Project Team
19.3.3 Training
19.3.4 Execution of Project
19.3.5 Quality Control and Quality Checking
19.3.6 Project Reporting
19.3.7 Project Meetings
19.4 Management of Project
19.4.1 Schedule/Time Management
19.4.2 Cost Management
19.4.3 Quality Management
19.4.4 Human Resource Management
19.4.5 Contract/Procurement Management
19.4.6 Communications Management
19.4.7 Scope Management
19.4.8 Risk Management
19.4.9 Project Integration Management
19.5 Keys for Successful GIS
19.6 Reasons for Unsuccessful GIS
20. Modern Trends of GIS
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Local to Global Concept in GIS
20.3 Increase in Dimensions in GIS
20.4 Linear to Non-linear Techniques in GIS
20.5 Development in Relation between Geometry and Algebra in GIS
20.6 Development of Common Techniques in GIS
20.7 Integration of GIS and Remote Sensing
20.8 Integration of GIS and Multimedia
20.8.1 Multimedia/Hypermedia GIS
20.8.2 Web GIS
20.9 3D GIS
20.9.1 Virtual Reality in GIS
20.10 Integration of 3D GIS and Web GIS
20.11 4D GIS and Real-time GIS
20.12 Mobile GIS
20.12.1 Mobile mapping
20.13 Collaborative GIS (CGIS)
21. Change Detection and Geosimulation
21.1 Visual change detection
21.2 Thresholding
21.3 Image difference
21.4 Image regression
21.5 Image ratioing
21.6 Vegetation index differencing
21.7 Principal component differencing
21.8 Multi-temporal image stock classification
21.9 Post classification comparison
21.10 Change vector analysis
21.12 Cellular automata simulation
21.13 Multi-agent simulation
21.4 ANN learning in simulation
Appendix A
Concept of Map, Coordinate System, and Projection
A.1 Introduction
A.2 What is Map?
A.2.1 How Maps Convey Location and Extent?
A.2.2 How Maps Convey Characteristics of Features?
A.2.3 How Maps Convey Spatial Relationships?
A.3 Orientation, Scale, Detail, Accuracy, and Resolution of Maps
A.4 Classification of Maps
A.4.1 Topographical Map by Survey of India
A.5 Coordinate System
A.5.1 Cartesian Coordinate System
A.5.2 Geographic Coordinate System
A.5.3 Projected Coordinate System
A.6 Projection
A.6.1 Selection of Map Projection
A.7 Classification of Map Projection
A.7.1 Cylindrical Projection
A.7.2 Conical Projection
A.7.3 Azimuthal Projection
A.7.4 Miscellaneous Projection
A.8 Projection Parameters
A.8.1 Linear Parameters
A.8.2 Angular Parameters
A.9 Common Map Projections
A.9.1 Polyconic Projection
A.9.2 Lambert's Azimuthal Equal-area Projection
A.9.3 UTM Projection
A.9.4 Latitude/Longitude Geographic Coordinates
Appendix B Concept on Mathematical Topics
B.1 Introduction
B.2 Number Systems
B.2.1 Conversion of Any Number to Decimal Number System
B.2.2 Conversion of Binary to Hexadecimal
B.2.3 Conversion of Hexadecimal to Binary
B.2.4 Conversion of Decimal to Any Other Number
B.2.5 Binary Addition
B.2.6 Complement
B.2.7 Representation of Negative Numbers
B.2.8 Floating-Point Number Representation
B.3 Matrix
B.3.1 Matrix Notation
B.3.2 Matrix Transposition
B.3.3 Summation of Matrix Elements
B.3.4 Matrix Multiplication
B.4 Polynomials
B.5 Digital Imagery Coordinate
B.6 Dimensionality of Image Data
B.7 Pixel Window
B.8 Image Histogram
B.9 Mean
B.10 Median
B.11 Mode
B.12 Variance
B.13 Standard Deviation
B.14 Covariance
B.15 Covariance Matrix
B.16 Measurement Vector
B.17 Mean Vector
B.18 Image Space and Feature Space
B.18.1 Feature Space Image
B.19 Factorial
B.20 Threshold
B.21 Fuzzy Logic
B.22 Artificial Neural Network
B.23 Greek Alphabets
Acronyms and Glossary
References
Index
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Distance of Remote Sensing
1.3 Definition of Remote Sensing
1.4 Remote Sensing: Art and/or Science
1.5 Data
1.5.1 In Situ Data
1.5.2 Remotely Sensed Data
1.6 Remote Sensing Process
1.7 Source of Energy
1.7.1 Concept of Energy
1.7.2 Electromagnetic Radiation
1.7.3 Electromagnetic Spectrum
1.8 Interaction with Atmosphere
1.8.1 Absorption
1.8.2 Scattering
1.8.3 Refraction
1.8.4 Reflection
1.9 Interaction with Target
1.9.1 Hemispherical Absorptance, Transmittance, and Reflectance
1.9.2 Spectral Reflectance Curve
1.10 Interaction with the Atmosphere Again
1.11 Recording of Energy by Sensor
1.11.1 Target and Path Radiance
1.12 Transmission, Reception, and Processing
1.13 Interpretation and Analysis
1.13.1 Visual Image Interpretation
1.13.2 Digital Image Processing
1.14 Applications of Remote Sensing
1.15 Advantages of Remote Sensing
1.16 Limitations of Remote Sensing
1.17 Ideal Remote Sensing System
2. Types of Remote Sensing and Sensor Characteristics
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Types of Remote Sensing
2.2.1 Classification Based on Platform
2.2.2 Classification Based on Energy Source
2.2.3 Classification Based on Imaging Media
2.2.4 Classification Based on the Regions of Electromagnetic Spectrum
2.2.5 Classification Based on Number of Bands
2.3 Characteristics of Images
2.4 Orbital Characteristics of Satellite
2.4.1 Orbit of Remote Sensing Satellite
2.5 Remote Sensing Satellites
2.6 Concept of Swath
2.7 Concept of Nadir
2.8 Sensor Resolutions
2.8.1 Spatial Resolution
2.8.2 Spectral Resolution
2.8.3 Radiometric Resolution
2.8.4 Temporal Resolution
2.9 Image Referencing System
2.9.1 Path
2.9.2 Row
2.9.3 Orbital Calendar
3. History of Remote Sensing and Indian Space Program
3.1 Introduction
3.2 The Early Age
3.3 The Middle Age
3.4 The Modern Age or Space Age
3.5 Indian Space Program
3.5.1 DOS and ISRO
3.5.2 NRSC
3.5.3 Indian Launch Programs
4. Photographic Imaging
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Camera Systems
4.2.1 Components of Aerial Metric Camera
4.2.2 Photographic Parameters
4.3 Types of Camera
4.3.1 Metric Cameras
4.3.2 Multiple-lens (or Multi- spectral or Multiple-band) Cameras
4.3.3 Panoramic Cameras
4.3.4 Strip Cameras
4.3.5 Large Format Cameras
4.4 Filter
4.4.1 Absorption Filter
4.4.2 Interference Filter
4.4.3 Anti-vignetting Filter
4.4.4 UV Filter and Skylight Filter
4.4.5 Haze Filter
4.4.6 Polarizing Filter
4.5 Film
4.5.1 Types of Film
4.5.2 Film Size
4.5.3 Film Resolution
4.5.4 Processing of Black-and-White Film
4.5.5 Processing of Colour Film
4.5.6 Digitization of Film
4.6 Geometry of Aerial Photography
4.6.1 Scale of Photograph
4.6.2 Vantage Point
4.7 Ideal Time and Atmosphere for Aerial Remote Sensing
5. Digital Imaging
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Digital Image
5.3 Sensor
5.3.1 Dispersing Element
5.3.2 Filter
5.3.3 Spectrometer and Spectroradiometer
5.3.4 Detectors
5.4 Imaging by Scanning Technique
5.4.1 Across-track Scanning
5.4.2 Along-track Scanning
5.5 Hyper-spectral Imaging
5.5.1 Airborne Visible Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS)
5.5.2 Compact Airborne Spectrographic Imager-2 (CASI-2)
5.5.3 Compact High Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (CHRIS)
5.6 Imaging By Non-scanning Technique
5.7 Thermal Remote Sensing
5.7.1 Radiant versus Kinetic Temperature
5.7.2 Blackbody Radiation
5.7.3 Thermal Imaging
5.7.4 Thermal Properties
5.7.5 Thermal Image and Temperature Mapping
5.7.6 Thermal Remote Sensing Sensors
5.8 Other Sensors
6. Microwave Remote Sensing
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Passive Microwave Remote Sensing
6.2.1 Passive Microwave Imagers
6.3 Active Microwave Remote Sensing
6.4 Radar Imaging
6.4.1 Frequency/Wavelength
6.4.2 Polarization
6.4.3 Viewing Geometry
6.4.4 Spatial Resolution of Radar System
6.4.5 Speckle
6.4.6 Surface Geometry
6.4.7 Surface Roughness
6.4.8 Dielectric Properties
6.5 Airborne Versus Space-Borne Radars
6.6 Radar Systems
6.6.1 RISAT - 1
7. Ground-truth Data and Global Positioning System
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Requirements of Ground-Truth Data
7.3 Instruments for Ground Truthing
7.4 Parameters of Ground Truthing
7.4.1 Atmospheric Conditions
7.4.2 Surface Water
7.4.3 Vegetation
7.4.4 Soil, Bare Ground, and Rock
7.4.5 Dark and Light Calibration Targets
7.5 Factors of Spectral Measurement
7.5.1 Sun Angles
7.5.2 Cloud Condition
7.5.3 Aerosol, Haze, and Water Vapour
7.5.4 Topography
7.5.5 Shadows
7.6 Global Navigation Satellite System
7.6.1 Satellite-based Navigation and Positioning Systems
7.6.2 Functional Segments of GPS
7.6.3 Working Principle of GPS
7.6.4 GPS Signals
7.6.5 Errors of GPS
7.6.6 Positioning Methods
7.6.7 Differential Global Positioning System
7.6.8 GPS Receivers
7.6.9 Applications of GNSS
8. Photogrammetry
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Development of Photogrammetry
8.3 Classification of Photogrammetry
8.4 Photogrammetric Process
8.5 Acquisition of Imagery and its Support Data
8.5.1 Acquisition of Imagery Using Aerial Platform
8.5.2 Acquisition of Imagery Using Satellite Platform
8.5.3 Control Surveys
8.5.4 Geometric Distortion in Imagery
8.6 Orientation and Triangulation
8.6.1 Coordinate Systems
8.6.2 Orientation
8.6.3 Block Triangulation
8.6.4 Transformation
8.7 Stereo Model Compilation
8.8 Stereoscopic 3D Viewing
8.8.1 Stereoscopic Viewing in Analog Photogrammetry
8.9 Stereoscopic Measurement
8.9.1 x-Parallax
8.9.2 y-parallax
8.10 DTM/DEM Generation
8.11 Contour Map Generation
8.12 Orthorectification
8.13 3D Feature Extraction
8.14 3D Scene Modelling
8.15 Photogrammetry and LiDAR
8.16 Radargrammetry and Radar Interferometry
8.17 Limitations of Photogrammetry
9. Visual Image Interpretation
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Information Extraction by Human and Computer
9.3 Remote Sensing Data Products
9.4 Border or Marginal Information
9.5 Image Interpretation
9.6 Elements of Visual Image Interpretation
9.6.1 Location
9.6.2 Size
9.6.3 Shape
9.6.4 Shadow
9.6.5 Tone
9.6.6 Colour
9.6.7 Texture
9.6.8 Pattern
9.6.9 Height and Depth
9.6.10 Site, Situation, and Association
9.7 Interpretation Keys
9.8 Generation of Thematic Maps
9.9 Thermal Image Interpretation
9.9.1 Diurnal Heating Effects
9.9.2 Thermal Properties of Water and Land
9.9.3 Interpretation of Multispectral Thermal Image
9.10 Radar Image Interpretation
9.10.1 Tone
9.10.2 Colour
9.10.3 Shape, Structure, and Size
9.10.4 Speckle
9.10.5 Antenna Pattern
9.10.6 Texture
10. Digital Image Processing
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Categorization of Image Processing
10.3 Image Processing Systems
10.4 Digital Image
10.5 Media for Digital Data Recording, Storage, and Distribution
10.6 Data Formats of Digital Image
10.7 Header Information
10.8 Display of Digital Image
10.9 Pre-processing
10.9.1 Radiometric Correction of Remotely Sensed Data
10.9.2 Geometric Correction of Remotely Sensed Data
10.9.3 Miscellaneous Pre-processing
10.10 Image Enhancement
10.10.1 Image Reduction
10.10.2 Image Magnification
10.10.3 Colour Compositing
10.10.4 Transect Extraction
10.10.5 Contrast Enhancement
10.10.6 Filtering
10.11 Image Transformation
10.11.1 Image Arithmetic Operations
10.11.2 Principal Component Transformation
10.11.3 Tasselled Cap Transformation (KT Transformation)
10.11.4 Colour Space Transformation
10.11.5 Fourier Transformation
10.11.6 Image Fusion
10.12 Image Classification
10.12.1 Information Class and Spectral Class
10.12.2 Supervised Versus Unsupervised Classification
10.12.3 Decision Rules for Supervised Classification
10.12.4 Decision Rules for Unsupervised Classification
10.12.5 Subpixel Classification
10.12.6 Accuracy Assessment
10.12.7 Post-classification Processing
11. Data Integration, Analysis, and Presentation
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Multi-approach of Remote Sensing
11.2.1 MultiSensor, Multiplatform, and MultiResolution Images
11.2.2 Multi-Spectral Images
11.2.3 MultiTemporal/MultiSeasonal Images
11.2.4 Multistage, Multiplatform, MultiScale, and MultiResolution
11.2.5 MultiSource Data
11.3 Integration with Ground Truth and Other Ancillary Data
11.4 Integration of Transformed Data
11.5 Integration with GIS
11.6 Process of Remote Sensing Data Analysis
11.7 The Level of Detail
11.8 Limitations of Remote Sensing Data Analysis
11.9 Presentation
12. Applications of Remote Sensing
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Land Cover and Land Use
12.2.1 Land-use/Land-cover Change
12.2.2 Land-cover Mapping
12.3 Agriculture
12.3.1 Crop Type Mapping
12.3.2 Crop Monitoring and Crop Damage Assessment
12.4 Forestry
12.4.1 Clear-cut Mapping and Deforestation
12.4.2 Species Identification and Typing
12.4.3 Burn Mapping
12.5 Geology
12.5.1 Structural Mapping and Terrain Analysis
12.5.2 Lineament Extraction
12.5.3 Geologic Unit Mapping
12.6 Geomorphology
12.7 Urban Applications
12.8 Hydrology
12.8.1 Flood Delineation and Mapping
12.8.2 Soil Moisture
12.8.3 Groundwater Prospects and Recharge
12.9 Mapping
12.9.1 Planimetry
12.9.2 Digital Elevation Models
12.9.3 Topographic and BTM
12.10 Oceans and Coastal Monitoring
12.10.1 Ocean Features
12.10.2 Ocean Colour and Phytoplankton Concentration
12.10.3 Measurement of SST
12.10.4 Oil Spill Detection
12.10.5 Sea-Surface Height
12.10.6 Sea-Surface Roughness
12.10.7 Ship Routing
12.10.8 Sea Ice
12.11 Monitoring of Atmospheric Constituents
PART II Geographic Information Systems and Geospatial Analysis
13. Concept of Geographic Information Systems
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Definitions of GIS
13.3 Key Components of GIS
13.4 GIS-An Integration of Spatial and Attribute Information
13.5 GIS-Three Views of Information System
13.6 GIS and Related Terms
13.7 GIS-A Knowledge Hub
13.7.1 Geography
13.7.2 Cartography
13.7.3 Remote Sensing
13.7.4 Photogrammetry
13.7.5 Surveying
13.7.6 Geodesy
13.7.7 Global Navigation Satellite Systems
13.7.8 Statistics
13.7.9 Operations Research
13.7.10 Computer Science
13.7.11 Mathematics
13.7.12 Civil Engineering
13.8 GIS-A Set of Interrelated Subsystems
13.8.1 Data Processing Subsystem
13.8.2 Data Analysis Subsystem
13.8.3 Information Use Subsystem
13.8.4 Management Subsystem
13.8.5 Communication Subsystem
13.9 GIS-An Information Infrastructure
13.10 Origin of GIS
14. Functions and Advantages of GIS
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Functions of GIS
14.3 Application Areas of GIS
14.4 Advantages of GIS
14.4.1 Advantage over Traditional Map
14.4.2 Advantage over Mapping Software
14.4.3 Advantage over CAD
14.4.4 Advantage over AM/FM
14.4.5 Advantage over Conventional DBMS
14.4.6 Advantage of Analysis, Modelling, Presentation, and Decision Making
14.5 Functional Requirements of GIS
14.5.1 Relating Information from Different Sources
14.5.2 Data Capture
14.5.3 Database Storage and Management
14.5.4 Data Integration
14.5.5 Projection and Registration
14.5.6 Data Structures
14.5.7 Spatial Analysis
14.5.8 Data Modelling
14.5.9 Presenting Results
14.6 Limitations of GIS
15. Spatial Data Model
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Spatial, Thematic, and Temporal Dimensions of Geographic Data
15.3 Spatial Entity and Object
15.4 Spatial Data Model
15.4.1 Conceptual Data Model
15.4.2 Logical Data Model
15.4.3 Object-oriented Data Model
15.5 Raster Data Model
15.5.1 Field-based Raster Model
15.5.2 Object-based Raster Model
15.6 Vector Data Model
15.6.1 Object-based Vector Model
15.6.2 Field-based Vector Model
15.7 Raster versus Vector
15.8 Object-Oriented Data Model
15.8.1 Classification of Objects
15.9 File Formats of Spatial Data
16. Attribute Data Management and Metadata Concept
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Concept of Database and DBMS
16.2.1 Tables
16.2.2 Queries
16.2.3 Reports
16.2.4 Forms
16.3 Advantages of DBMS
16.4 Functions of DBMS
16.5 File and Data Access
16.5.1 Simple List
16.5.2 Ordered Sequential File
16.5.3 Indexed File
16.5.4 Databases
16.6 Data Models
16.7 Database Models
16.7.1 Object-based Model
16.7.2 Record-based Model
16.7.3 Physical Model
16.8 Data Models in GIS
16.9 Concept of SQL
16.10 Concept of Metadata
16.10.1 Role of Metadata in GIS
16.10.2 Metadata Standards
16.10.3 Metadata Formats
16.10.4 Questions to be Answered to Create Metadata
17. Process of GIS
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Data Capture
17.3 Data Sources
17.3.1 Conventional Analog Map Sources
17.3.2 Reports and Publications
17.3.3 Aerial Remote Sensing/Aerial Photography
17.3.4 Satellite Remote Sensing
17.3.5 Field Data Sources
17.3.6 Existing Digital Map Sources
17.4 Data Encoding Methods
17.4.1 Encoding Raster Data
17.4.2 Encoding Vector Data
17.4.3 Verification and Quality Checking of Vector Data
17.4.4 Vector Editing/Cleaning
17.4.5 Encoding Attribute Data
17.4.6 Digital File/Data Transfer
17.5 Linking of Spatial and Attribute Data
17.6 Organizing Data for Analysis
18. Geospatial Analysis
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Geospatial Data Analysis
18.3 Integration and Modelling of Spatial Data
18.4 Geospatial Data Analysis Methods
18.5 Database Query
18.5.1 Vector Data Query
18.5.2 Raster Data Query
18.6 Geospatial Measurements
18.6.1 Measurement of Density
18.6.2 Measurement of Distance
18.6.3 Measurement of Neighbourhood
18.7 Overlay Operations
18.7.1 Vector Overlay
18.7.2 Raster Overlay
18.8 Network Analysis
18.8.1 Network Tracing
18.8.2 Network Routing
18.8.3 Network Allocation
18.9 Surface Analysis
18.9.1 Deriving Contours/Isolines
18.9.2 Deriving Slope
18.9.3 Deriving Aspect
18.9.4 Hillshade Analysis
18.9.5 Viewshed Analysis
18.9.6 Watershed Analysis
18.9.7 Surface Intersection
18.10 Geostatistics
18.11 Geovisualization
18.11.1 Classification and Reclassification
18.11.2 Map Comparison
18.11.3 Chart
18.11.4 Report
18.11.5 Layout
18.11.6 3D Visualization
19. Planning, Implementation, and Management of GIS
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Planning of Project
19.2.1 Considering the Strategic Purpose
19.2.2 Plan for the Planning
19.2.3 Determine Technology Requirements
19.2.4 Describing Information Products
19.2.5 Defining System Scope
19.2.6 Designing Database
19.2.7 Choosing Logical Data Model
19.2.8 Determining System Requirements
19.2.9 Analysing Benefits and Costs
19.2.10 Implementation Plan
19.3 Implementation of Project
19.3.1 Procurement of Hardware and Software
19.3.2 Organization of Project Team
19.3.3 Training
19.3.4 Execution of Project
19.3.5 Quality Control and Quality Checking
19.3.6 Project Reporting
19.3.7 Project Meetings
19.4 Management of Project
19.4.1 Schedule/Time Management
19.4.2 Cost Management
19.4.3 Quality Management
19.4.4 Human Resource Management
19.4.5 Contract/Procurement Management
19.4.6 Communications Management
19.4.7 Scope Management
19.4.8 Risk Management
19.4.9 Project Integration Management
19.5 Keys for Successful GIS
19.6 Reasons for Unsuccessful GIS
20. Modern Trends of GIS
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Local to Global Concept in GIS
20.3 Increase in Dimensions in GIS
20.4 Linear to Non-linear Techniques in GIS
20.5 Development in Relation between Geometry and Algebra in GIS
20.6 Development of Common Techniques in GIS
20.7 Integration of GIS and Remote Sensing
20.8 Integration of GIS and Multimedia
20.8.1 Multimedia/Hypermedia GIS
20.8.2 Web GIS
20.9 3D GIS
20.9.1 Virtual Reality in GIS
20.10 Integration of 3D GIS and Web GIS
20.11 4D GIS and Real-time GIS
20.12 Mobile GIS
20.12.1 Mobile mapping
20.13 Collaborative GIS (CGIS)
21. Change Detection and Geosimulation
21.1 Visual change detection
21.2 Thresholding
21.3 Image difference
21.4 Image regression
21.5 Image ratioing
21.6 Vegetation index differencing
21.7 Principal component differencing
21.8 Multi-temporal image stock classification
21.9 Post classification comparison
21.10 Change vector analysis
21.12 Cellular automata simulation
21.13 Multi-agent simulation
21.4 ANN learning in simulation
Appendix A
Concept of Map, Coordinate System, and Projection
A.1 Introduction
A.2 What is Map?
A.2.1 How Maps Convey Location and Extent?
A.2.2 How Maps Convey Characteristics of Features?
A.2.3 How Maps Convey Spatial Relationships?
A.3 Orientation, Scale, Detail, Accuracy, and Resolution of Maps
A.4 Classification of Maps
A.4.1 Topographical Map by Survey of India
A.5 Coordinate System
A.5.1 Cartesian Coordinate System
A.5.2 Geographic Coordinate System
A.5.3 Projected Coordinate System
A.6 Projection
A.6.1 Selection of Map Projection
A.7 Classification of Map Projection
A.7.1 Cylindrical Projection
A.7.2 Conical Projection
A.7.3 Azimuthal Projection
A.7.4 Miscellaneous Projection
A.8 Projection Parameters
A.8.1 Linear Parameters
A.8.2 Angular Parameters
A.9 Common Map Projections
A.9.1 Polyconic Projection
A.9.2 Lambert's Azimuthal Equal-area Projection
A.9.3 UTM Projection
A.9.4 Latitude/Longitude Geographic Coordinates
Appendix B Concept on Mathematical Topics
B.1 Introduction
B.2 Number Systems
B.2.1 Conversion of Any Number to Decimal Number System
B.2.2 Conversion of Binary to Hexadecimal
B.2.3 Conversion of Hexadecimal to Binary
B.2.4 Conversion of Decimal to Any Other Number
B.2.5 Binary Addition
B.2.6 Complement
B.2.7 Representation of Negative Numbers
B.2.8 Floating-Point Number Representation
B.3 Matrix
B.3.1 Matrix Notation
B.3.2 Matrix Transposition
B.3.3 Summation of Matrix Elements
B.3.4 Matrix Multiplication
B.4 Polynomials
B.5 Digital Imagery Coordinate
B.6 Dimensionality of Image Data
B.7 Pixel Window
B.8 Image Histogram
B.9 Mean
B.10 Median
B.11 Mode
B.12 Variance
B.13 Standard Deviation
B.14 Covariance
B.15 Covariance Matrix
B.16 Measurement Vector
B.17 Mean Vector
B.18 Image Space and Feature Space
B.18.1 Feature Space Image
B.19 Factorial
B.20 Threshold
B.21 Fuzzy Logic
B.22 Artificial Neural Network
B.23 Greek Alphabets
Acronyms and Glossary
References
Index
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1. Concept of Remote Sensing
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Distance of Remote Sensing
1.3 Definition of Remote Sensing
1.4 Remote Sensing: Art and/or Science
1.5 Data
1.5.1 In Situ Data
1.5.2 Remotely Sensed Data
1.6 Remote Sensing Process
1.7 Source of Energy
1.7.1 Concept of Energy
1.7.2 Electromagnetic Radiation
1.7.3 Electromagnetic Spectrum
1.8 Interaction with Atmosphere
1.8.1 Absorption
1.8.2 Scattering
1.8.3 Refraction
1.8.4 Reflection
1.9 Interaction with Target
1.9.1 Hemispherical Absorptance, Transmittance, and Reflectance
1.9.2 Spectral Reflectance Curve
1.10 Interaction with the Atmosphere Again
1.11 Recording of Energy by Sensor
1.11.1 Target and Path Radiance
1.12 Transmission, Reception, and Processing
1.13 Interpretation and Analysis
1.13.1 Visual Image Interpretation
1.13.2 Digital Image Processing
1.14 Applications of Remote Sensing
1.15 Advantages of Remote Sensing
1.16 Limitations of Remote Sensing
1.17 Ideal Remote Sensing System
2. Types of Remote Sensing and Sensor Characteristics
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Types of Remote Sensing
2.2.1 Classification Based on Platform
2.2.2 Classification Based on Energy Source
2.2.3 Classification Based on Imaging Media
2.2.4 Classification Based on the Regions of Electromagnetic Spectrum
2.2.5 Classification Based on Number of Bands
2.3 Characteristics of Images
2.4 Orbital Characteristics of Satellite
2.4.1 Orbit of Remote Sensing Satellite
2.5 Remote Sensing Satellites
2.6 Concept of Swath
2.7 Concept of Nadir
2.8 Sensor Resolutions
2.8.1 Spatial Resolution
2.8.2 Spectral Resolution
2.8.3 Radiometric Resolution
2.8.4 Temporal Resolution
2.9 Image Referencing System
2.9.1 Path
2.9.2 Row
2.9.3 Orbital Calendar
3. History of Remote Sensing and Indian Space Program
3.1 Introduction
3.2 The Early Age
3.3 The Middle Age
3.4 The Modern Age or Space Age
3.5 Indian Space Program
3.5.1 DOS and ISRO
3.5.2 NRSC
3.5.3 Indian Launch Programs
4. Photographic Imaging
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Camera Systems
4.2.1 Components of Aerial Metric Camera
4.2.2 Photographic Parameters
4.3 Types of Camera
4.3.1 Metric Cameras
4.3.2 Multiple-lens (or Multi- spectral or Multiple-band) Cameras
4.3.3 Panoramic Cameras
4.3.4 Strip Cameras
4.3.5 Large Format Cameras
4.4 Filter
4.4.1 Absorption Filter
4.4.2 Interference Filter
4.4.3 Anti-vignetting Filter
4.4.4 UV Filter and Skylight Filter
4.4.5 Haze Filter
4.4.6 Polarizing Filter
4.5 Film
4.5.1 Types of Film
4.5.2 Film Size
4.5.3 Film Resolution
4.5.4 Processing of Black-and-White Film
4.5.5 Processing of Colour Film
4.5.6 Digitization of Film
4.6 Geometry of Aerial Photography
4.6.1 Scale of Photograph
4.6.2 Vantage Point
4.7 Ideal Time and Atmosphere for Aerial Remote Sensing
5. Digital Imaging
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Digital Image
5.3 Sensor
5.3.1 Dispersing Element
5.3.2 Filter
5.3.3 Spectrometer and Spectroradiometer
5.3.4 Detectors
5.4 Imaging by Scanning Technique
5.4.1 Across-track Scanning
5.4.2 Along-track Scanning
5.5 Hyper-spectral Imaging
5.5.1 Airborne Visible Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS)
5.5.2 Compact Airborne Spectrographic Imager-2 (CASI-2)
5.5.3 Compact High Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (CHRIS)
5.6 Imaging By Non-scanning Technique
5.7 Thermal Remote Sensing
5.7.1 Radiant versus Kinetic Temperature
5.7.2 Blackbody Radiation
5.7.3 Thermal Imaging
5.7.4 Thermal Properties
5.7.5 Thermal Image and Temperature Mapping
5.7.6 Thermal Remote Sensing Sensors
5.8 Other Sensors
6. Microwave Remote Sensing
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Passive Microwave Remote Sensing
6.2.1 Passive Microwave Imagers
6.3 Active Microwave Remote Sensing
6.4 Radar Imaging
6.4.1 Frequency/Wavelength
6.4.2 Polarization
6.4.3 Viewing Geometry
6.4.4 Spatial Resolution of Radar System
6.4.5 Speckle
6.4.6 Surface Geometry
6.4.7 Surface Roughness
6.4.8 Dielectric Properties
6.5 Airborne Versus Space-Borne Radars
6.6 Radar Systems
6.6.1 RISAT - 1
7. Ground-truth Data and Global Positioning System
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Requirements of Ground-Truth Data
7.3 Instruments for Ground Truthing
7.4 Parameters of Ground Truthing
7.4.1 Atmospheric Conditions
7.4.2 Surface Water
7.4.3 Vegetation
7.4.4 Soil, Bare Ground, and Rock
7.4.5 Dark and Light Calibration Targets
7.5 Factors of Spectral Measurement
7.5.1 Sun Angles
7.5.2 Cloud Condition
7.5.3 Aerosol, Haze, and Water Vapour
7.5.4 Topography
7.5.5 Shadows
7.6 Global Navigation Satellite System
7.6.1 Satellite-based Navigation and Positioning Systems
7.6.2 Functional Segments of GPS
7.6.3 Working Principle of GPS
7.6.4 GPS Signals
7.6.5 Errors of GPS
7.6.6 Positioning Methods
7.6.7 Differential Global Positioning System
7.6.8 GPS Receivers
7.6.9 Applications of GNSS
8. Photogrammetry
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Development of Photogrammetry
8.3 Classification of Photogrammetry
8.4 Photogrammetric Process
8.5 Acquisition of Imagery and its Support Data
8.5.1 Acquisition of Imagery Using Aerial Platform
8.5.2 Acquisition of Imagery Using Satellite Platform
8.5.3 Control Surveys
8.5.4 Geometric Distortion in Imagery
8.6 Orientation and Triangulation
8.6.1 Coordinate Systems
8.6.2 Orientation
8.6.3 Block Triangulation
8.6.4 Transformation
8.7 Stereo Model Compilation
8.8 Stereoscopic 3D Viewing
8.8.1 Stereoscopic Viewing in Analog Photogrammetry
8.9 Stereoscopic Measurement
8.9.1 x-Parallax
8.9.2 y-parallax
8.10 DTM/DEM Generation
8.11 Contour Map Generation
8.12 Orthorectification
8.13 3D Feature Extraction
8.14 3D Scene Modelling
8.15 Photogrammetry and LiDAR
8.16 Radargrammetry and Radar Interferometry
8.17 Limitations of Photogrammetry
9. Visual Image Interpretation
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Information Extraction by Human and Computer
9.3 Remote Sensing Data Products
9.4 Border or Marginal Information
9.5 Image Interpretation
9.6 Elements of Visual Image Interpretation
9.6.1 Location
9.6.2 Size
9.6.3 Shape
9.6.4 Shadow
9.6.5 Tone
9.6.6 Colour
9.6.7 Texture
9.6.8 Pattern
9.6.9 Height and Depth
9.6.10 Site, Situation, and Association
9.7 Interpretation Keys
9.8 Generation of Thematic Maps
9.9 Thermal Image Interpretation
9.9.1 Diurnal Heating Effects
9.9.2 Thermal Properties of Water and Land
9.9.3 Interpretation of Multispectral Thermal Image
9.10 Radar Image Interpretation
9.10.1 Tone
9.10.2 Colour
9.10.3 Shape, Structure, and Size
9.10.4 Speckle
9.10.5 Antenna Pattern
9.10.6 Texture
10. Digital Image Processing
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Categorization of Image Processing
10.3 Image Processing Systems
10.4 Digital Image
10.5 Media for Digital Data Recording, Storage, and Distribution
10.6 Data Formats of Digital Image
10.7 Header Information
10.8 Display of Digital Image
10.9 Pre-processing
10.9.1 Radiometric Correction of Remotely Sensed Data
10.9.2 Geometric Correction of Remotely Sensed Data
10.9.3 Miscellaneous Pre-processing
10.10 Image Enhancement
10.10.1 Image Reduction
10.10.2 Image Magnification
10.10.3 Colour Compositing
10.10.4 Transect Extraction
10.10.5 Contrast Enhancement
10.10.6 Filtering
10.11 Image Transformation
10.11.1 Image Arithmetic Operations
10.11.2 Principal Component Transformation
10.11.3 Tasselled Cap Transformation (KT Transformation)
10.11.4 Colour Space Transformation
10.11.5 Fourier Transformation
10.11.6 Image Fusion
10.12 Image Classification
10.12.1 Information Class and Spectral Class
10.12.2 Supervised Versus Unsupervised Classification
10.12.3 Decision Rules for Supervised Classification
10.12.4 Decision Rules for Unsupervised Classification
10.12.5 Subpixel Classification
10.12.6 Accuracy Assessment
10.12.7 Post-classification Processing
11. Data Integration, Analysis, and Presentation
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Multi-approach of Remote Sensing
11.2.1 MultiSensor, Multiplatform, and MultiResolution Images
11.2.2 Multi-Spectral Images
11.2.3 MultiTemporal/MultiSeasonal Images
11.2.4 Multistage, Multiplatform, MultiScale, and MultiResolution
11.2.5 MultiSource Data
11.3 Integration with Ground Truth and Other Ancillary Data
11.4 Integration of Transformed Data
11.5 Integration with GIS
11.6 Process of Remote Sensing Data Analysis
11.7 The Level of Detail
11.8 Limitations of Remote Sensing Data Analysis
11.9 Presentation
12. Applications of Remote Sensing
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Land Cover and Land Use
12.2.1 Land-use/Land-cover Change
12.2.2 Land-cover Mapping
12.3 Agriculture
12.3.1 Crop Type Mapping
12.3.2 Crop Monitoring and Crop Damage Assessment
12.4 Forestry
12.4.1 Clear-cut Mapping and Deforestation
12.4.2 Species Identification and Typing
12.4.3 Burn Mapping
12.5 Geology
12.5.1 Structural Mapping and Terrain Analysis
12.5.2 Lineament Extraction
12.5.3 Geologic Unit Mapping
12.6 Geomorphology
12.7 Urban Applications
12.8 Hydrology
12.8.1 Flood Delineation and Mapping
12.8.2 Soil Moisture
12.8.3 Groundwater Prospects and Recharge
12.9 Mapping
12.9.1 Planimetry
12.9.2 Digital Elevation Models
12.9.3 Topographic and BTM
12.10 Oceans and Coastal Monitoring
12.10.1 Ocean Features
12.10.2 Ocean Colour and Phytoplankton Concentration
12.10.3 Measurement of SST
12.10.4 Oil Spill Detection
12.10.5 Sea-Surface Height
12.10.6 Sea-Surface Roughness
12.10.7 Ship Routing
12.10.8 Sea Ice
12.11 Monitoring of Atmospheric Constituents
PART II Geographic Information Systems and Geospatial Analysis
13. Concept of Geographic Information Systems
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Definitions of GIS
13.3 Key Components of GIS
13.4 GIS-An Integration of Spatial and Attribute Information
13.5 GIS-Three Views of Information System
13.6 GIS and Related Terms
13.7 GIS-A Knowledge Hub
13.7.1 Geography
13.7.2 Cartography
13.7.3 Remote Sensing
13.7.4 Photogrammetry
13.7.5 Surveying
13.7.6 Geodesy
13.7.7 Global Navigation Satellite Systems
13.7.8 Statistics
13.7.9 Operations Research
13.7.10 Computer Science
13.7.11 Mathematics
13.7.12 Civil Engineering
13.8 GIS-A Set of Interrelated Subsystems
13.8.1 Data Processing Subsystem
13.8.2 Data Analysis Subsystem
13.8.3 Information Use Subsystem
13.8.4 Management Subsystem
13.8.5 Communication Subsystem
13.9 GIS-An Information Infrastructure
13.10 Origin of GIS
14. Functions and Advantages of GIS
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Functions of GIS
14.3 Application Areas of GIS
14.4 Advantages of GIS
14.4.1 Advantage over Traditional Map
14.4.2 Advantage over Mapping Software
14.4.3 Advantage over CAD
14.4.4 Advantage over AM/FM
14.4.5 Advantage over Conventional DBMS
14.4.6 Advantage of Analysis, Modelling, Presentation, and Decision Making
14.5 Functional Requirements of GIS
14.5.1 Relating Information from Different Sources
14.5.2 Data Capture
14.5.3 Database Storage and Management
14.5.4 Data Integration
14.5.5 Projection and Registration
14.5.6 Data Structures
14.5.7 Spatial Analysis
14.5.8 Data Modelling
14.5.9 Presenting Results
14.6 Limitations of GIS
15. Spatial Data Model
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Spatial, Thematic, and Temporal Dimensions of Geographic Data
15.3 Spatial Entity and Object
15.4 Spatial Data Model
15.4.1 Conceptual Data Model
15.4.2 Logical Data Model
15.4.3 Object-oriented Data Model
15.5 Raster Data Model
15.5.1 Field-based Raster Model
15.5.2 Object-based Raster Model
15.6 Vector Data Model
15.6.1 Object-based Vector Model
15.6.2 Field-based Vector Model
15.7 Raster versus Vector
15.8 Object-Oriented Data Model
15.8.1 Classification of Objects
15.9 File Formats of Spatial Data
16. Attribute Data Management and Metadata Concept
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Concept of Database and DBMS
16.2.1 Tables
16.2.2 Queries
16.2.3 Reports
16.2.4 Forms
16.3 Advantages of DBMS
16.4 Functions of DBMS
16.5 File and Data Access
16.5.1 Simple List
16.5.2 Ordered Sequential File
16.5.3 Indexed File
16.5.4 Databases
16.6 Data Models
16.7 Database Models
16.7.1 Object-based Model
16.7.2 Record-based Model
16.7.3 Physical Model
16.8 Data Models in GIS
16.9 Concept of SQL
16.10 Concept of Metadata
16.10.1 Role of Metadata in GIS
16.10.2 Metadata Standards
16.10.3 Metadata Formats
16.10.4 Questions to be Answered to Create Metadata
17. Process of GIS
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Data Capture
17.3 Data Sources
17.3.1 Conventional Analog Map Sources
17.3.2 Reports and Publications
17.3.3 Aerial Remote Sensing/Aerial Photography
17.3.4 Satellite Remote Sensing
17.3.5 Field Data Sources
17.3.6 Existing Digital Map Sources
17.4 Data Encoding Methods
17.4.1 Encoding Raster Data
17.4.2 Encoding Vector Data
17.4.3 Verification and Quality Checking of Vector Data
17.4.4 Vector Editing/Cleaning
17.4.5 Encoding Attribute Data
17.4.6 Digital File/Data Transfer
17.5 Linking of Spatial and Attribute Data
17.6 Organizing Data for Analysis
18. Geospatial Analysis
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Geospatial Data Analysis
18.3 Integration and Modelling of Spatial Data
18.4 Geospatial Data Analysis Methods
18.5 Database Query
18.5.1 Vector Data Query
18.5.2 Raster Data Query
18.6 Geospatial Measurements
18.6.1 Measurement of Density
18.6.2 Measurement of Distance
18.6.3 Measurement of Neighbourhood
18.7 Overlay Operations
18.7.1 Vector Overlay
18.7.2 Raster Overlay
18.8 Network Analysis
18.8.1 Network Tracing
18.8.2 Network Routing
18.8.3 Network Allocation
18.9 Surface Analysis
18.9.1 Deriving Contours/Isolines
18.9.2 Deriving Slope
18.9.3 Deriving Aspect
18.9.4 Hillshade Analysis
18.9.5 Viewshed Analysis
18.9.6 Watershed Analysis
18.9.7 Surface Intersection
18.10 Geostatistics
18.11 Geovisualization
18.11.1 Classification and Reclassification
18.11.2 Map Comparison
18.11.3 Chart
18.11.4 Report
18.11.5 Layout
18.11.6 3D Visualization
19. Planning, Implementation, and Management of GIS
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Planning of Project
19.2.1 Considering the Strategic Purpose
19.2.2 Plan for the Planning
19.2.3 Determine Technology Requirements
19.2.4 Describing Information Products
19.2.5 Defining System Scope
19.2.6 Designing Database
19.2.7 Choosing Logical Data Model
19.2.8 Determining System Requirements
19.2.9 Analysing Benefits and Costs
19.2.10 Implementation Plan
19.3 Implementation of Project
19.3.1 Procurement of Hardware and Software
19.3.2 Organization of Project Team
19.3.3 Training
19.3.4 Execution of Project
19.3.5 Quality Control and Quality Checking
19.3.6 Project Reporting
19.3.7 Project Meetings
19.4 Management of Project
19.4.1 Schedule/Time Management
19.4.2 Cost Management
19.4.3 Quality Management
19.4.4 Human Resource Management
19.4.5 Contract/Procurement Management
19.4.6 Communications Management
19.4.7 Scope Management
19.4.8 Risk Management
19.4.9 Project Integration Management
19.5 Keys for Successful GIS
19.6 Reasons for Unsuccessful GIS
20. Modern Trends of GIS
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Local to Global Concept in GIS
20.3 Increase in Dimensions in GIS
20.4 Linear to Non-linear Techniques in GIS
20.5 Development in Relation between Geometry and Algebra in GIS
20.6 Development of Common Techniques in GIS
20.7 Integration of GIS and Remote Sensing
20.8 Integration of GIS and Multimedia
20.8.1 Multimedia/Hypermedia GIS
20.8.2 Web GIS
20.9 3D GIS
20.9.1 Virtual Reality in GIS
20.10 Integration of 3D GIS and Web GIS
20.11 4D GIS and Real-time GIS
20.12 Mobile GIS
20.12.1 Mobile mapping
20.13 Collaborative GIS (CGIS)
21. Change Detection and Geosimulation
21.1 Visual change detection
21.2 Thresholding
21.3 Image difference
21.4 Image regression
21.5 Image ratioing
21.6 Vegetation index differencing
21.7 Principal component differencing
21.8 Multi-temporal image stock classification
21.9 Post classification comparison
21.10 Change vector analysis
21.12 Cellular automata simulation
21.13 Multi-agent simulation
21.4 ANN learning in simulation
Appendix A
Concept of Map, Coordinate System, and Projection
A.1 Introduction
A.2 What is Map?
A.2.1 How Maps Convey Location and Extent?
A.2.2 How Maps Convey Characteristics of Features?
A.2.3 How Maps Convey Spatial Relationships?
A.3 Orientation, Scale, Detail, Accuracy, and Resolution of Maps
A.4 Classification of Maps
A.4.1 Topographical Map by Survey of India
A.5 Coordinate System
A.5.1 Cartesian Coordinate System
A.5.2 Geographic Coordinate System
A.5.3 Projected Coordinate System
A.6 Projection
A.6.1 Selection of Map Projection
A.7 Classification of Map Projection
A.7.1 Cylindrical Projection
A.7.2 Conical Projection
A.7.3 Azimuthal Projection
A.7.4 Miscellaneous Projection
A.8 Projection Parameters
A.8.1 Linear Parameters
A.8.2 Angular Parameters
A.9 Common Map Projections
A.9.1 Polyconic Projection
A.9.2 Lambert's Azimuthal Equal-area Projection
A.9.3 UTM Projection
A.9.4 Latitude/Longitude Geographic Coordinates
Appendix B Concept on Mathematical Topics
B.1 Introduction
B.2 Number Systems
B.2.1 Conversion of Any Number to Decimal Number System
B.2.2 Conversion of Binary to Hexadecimal
B.2.3 Conversion of Hexadecimal to Binary
B.2.4 Conversion of Decimal to Any Other Number
B.2.5 Binary Addition
B.2.6 Complement
B.2.7 Representation of Negative Numbers
B.2.8 Floating-Point Number Representation
B.3 Matrix
B.3.1 Matrix Notation
B.3.2 Matrix Transposition
B.3.3 Summation of Matrix Elements
B.3.4 Matrix Multiplication
B.4 Polynomials
B.5 Digital Imagery Coordinate
B.6 Dimensionality of Image Data
B.7 Pixel Window
B.8 Image Histogram
B.9 Mean
B.10 Median
B.11 Mode
B.12 Variance
B.13 Standard Deviation
B.14 Covariance
B.15 Covariance Matrix
B.16 Measurement Vector
B.17 Mean Vector
B.18 Image Space and Feature Space
B.18.1 Feature Space Image
B.19 Factorial
B.20 Threshold
B.21 Fuzzy Logic
B.22 Artificial Neural Network
B.23 Greek Alphabets
Acronyms and Glossary
References
Index
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Distance of Remote Sensing
1.3 Definition of Remote Sensing
1.4 Remote Sensing: Art and/or Science
1.5 Data
1.5.1 In Situ Data
1.5.2 Remotely Sensed Data
1.6 Remote Sensing Process
1.7 Source of Energy
1.7.1 Concept of Energy
1.7.2 Electromagnetic Radiation
1.7.3 Electromagnetic Spectrum
1.8 Interaction with Atmosphere
1.8.1 Absorption
1.8.2 Scattering
1.8.3 Refraction
1.8.4 Reflection
1.9 Interaction with Target
1.9.1 Hemispherical Absorptance, Transmittance, and Reflectance
1.9.2 Spectral Reflectance Curve
1.10 Interaction with the Atmosphere Again
1.11 Recording of Energy by Sensor
1.11.1 Target and Path Radiance
1.12 Transmission, Reception, and Processing
1.13 Interpretation and Analysis
1.13.1 Visual Image Interpretation
1.13.2 Digital Image Processing
1.14 Applications of Remote Sensing
1.15 Advantages of Remote Sensing
1.16 Limitations of Remote Sensing
1.17 Ideal Remote Sensing System
2. Types of Remote Sensing and Sensor Characteristics
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Types of Remote Sensing
2.2.1 Classification Based on Platform
2.2.2 Classification Based on Energy Source
2.2.3 Classification Based on Imaging Media
2.2.4 Classification Based on the Regions of Electromagnetic Spectrum
2.2.5 Classification Based on Number of Bands
2.3 Characteristics of Images
2.4 Orbital Characteristics of Satellite
2.4.1 Orbit of Remote Sensing Satellite
2.5 Remote Sensing Satellites
2.6 Concept of Swath
2.7 Concept of Nadir
2.8 Sensor Resolutions
2.8.1 Spatial Resolution
2.8.2 Spectral Resolution
2.8.3 Radiometric Resolution
2.8.4 Temporal Resolution
2.9 Image Referencing System
2.9.1 Path
2.9.2 Row
2.9.3 Orbital Calendar
3. History of Remote Sensing and Indian Space Program
3.1 Introduction
3.2 The Early Age
3.3 The Middle Age
3.4 The Modern Age or Space Age
3.5 Indian Space Program
3.5.1 DOS and ISRO
3.5.2 NRSC
3.5.3 Indian Launch Programs
4. Photographic Imaging
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Camera Systems
4.2.1 Components of Aerial Metric Camera
4.2.2 Photographic Parameters
4.3 Types of Camera
4.3.1 Metric Cameras
4.3.2 Multiple-lens (or Multi- spectral or Multiple-band) Cameras
4.3.3 Panoramic Cameras
4.3.4 Strip Cameras
4.3.5 Large Format Cameras
4.4 Filter
4.4.1 Absorption Filter
4.4.2 Interference Filter
4.4.3 Anti-vignetting Filter
4.4.4 UV Filter and Skylight Filter
4.4.5 Haze Filter
4.4.6 Polarizing Filter
4.5 Film
4.5.1 Types of Film
4.5.2 Film Size
4.5.3 Film Resolution
4.5.4 Processing of Black-and-White Film
4.5.5 Processing of Colour Film
4.5.6 Digitization of Film
4.6 Geometry of Aerial Photography
4.6.1 Scale of Photograph
4.6.2 Vantage Point
4.7 Ideal Time and Atmosphere for Aerial Remote Sensing
5. Digital Imaging
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Digital Image
5.3 Sensor
5.3.1 Dispersing Element
5.3.2 Filter
5.3.3 Spectrometer and Spectroradiometer
5.3.4 Detectors
5.4 Imaging by Scanning Technique
5.4.1 Across-track Scanning
5.4.2 Along-track Scanning
5.5 Hyper-spectral Imaging
5.5.1 Airborne Visible Infrared Imaging Spectrometer (AVIRIS)
5.5.2 Compact Airborne Spectrographic Imager-2 (CASI-2)
5.5.3 Compact High Resolution Imaging Spectrometer (CHRIS)
5.6 Imaging By Non-scanning Technique
5.7 Thermal Remote Sensing
5.7.1 Radiant versus Kinetic Temperature
5.7.2 Blackbody Radiation
5.7.3 Thermal Imaging
5.7.4 Thermal Properties
5.7.5 Thermal Image and Temperature Mapping
5.7.6 Thermal Remote Sensing Sensors
5.8 Other Sensors
6. Microwave Remote Sensing
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Passive Microwave Remote Sensing
6.2.1 Passive Microwave Imagers
6.3 Active Microwave Remote Sensing
6.4 Radar Imaging
6.4.1 Frequency/Wavelength
6.4.2 Polarization
6.4.3 Viewing Geometry
6.4.4 Spatial Resolution of Radar System
6.4.5 Speckle
6.4.6 Surface Geometry
6.4.7 Surface Roughness
6.4.8 Dielectric Properties
6.5 Airborne Versus Space-Borne Radars
6.6 Radar Systems
6.6.1 RISAT - 1
7. Ground-truth Data and Global Positioning System
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Requirements of Ground-Truth Data
7.3 Instruments for Ground Truthing
7.4 Parameters of Ground Truthing
7.4.1 Atmospheric Conditions
7.4.2 Surface Water
7.4.3 Vegetation
7.4.4 Soil, Bare Ground, and Rock
7.4.5 Dark and Light Calibration Targets
7.5 Factors of Spectral Measurement
7.5.1 Sun Angles
7.5.2 Cloud Condition
7.5.3 Aerosol, Haze, and Water Vapour
7.5.4 Topography
7.5.5 Shadows
7.6 Global Navigation Satellite System
7.6.1 Satellite-based Navigation and Positioning Systems
7.6.2 Functional Segments of GPS
7.6.3 Working Principle of GPS
7.6.4 GPS Signals
7.6.5 Errors of GPS
7.6.6 Positioning Methods
7.6.7 Differential Global Positioning System
7.6.8 GPS Receivers
7.6.9 Applications of GNSS
8. Photogrammetry
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Development of Photogrammetry
8.3 Classification of Photogrammetry
8.4 Photogrammetric Process
8.5 Acquisition of Imagery and its Support Data
8.5.1 Acquisition of Imagery Using Aerial Platform
8.5.2 Acquisition of Imagery Using Satellite Platform
8.5.3 Control Surveys
8.5.4 Geometric Distortion in Imagery
8.6 Orientation and Triangulation
8.6.1 Coordinate Systems
8.6.2 Orientation
8.6.3 Block Triangulation
8.6.4 Transformation
8.7 Stereo Model Compilation
8.8 Stereoscopic 3D Viewing
8.8.1 Stereoscopic Viewing in Analog Photogrammetry
8.9 Stereoscopic Measurement
8.9.1 x-Parallax
8.9.2 y-parallax
8.10 DTM/DEM Generation
8.11 Contour Map Generation
8.12 Orthorectification
8.13 3D Feature Extraction
8.14 3D Scene Modelling
8.15 Photogrammetry and LiDAR
8.16 Radargrammetry and Radar Interferometry
8.17 Limitations of Photogrammetry
9. Visual Image Interpretation
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Information Extraction by Human and Computer
9.3 Remote Sensing Data Products
9.4 Border or Marginal Information
9.5 Image Interpretation
9.6 Elements of Visual Image Interpretation
9.6.1 Location
9.6.2 Size
9.6.3 Shape
9.6.4 Shadow
9.6.5 Tone
9.6.6 Colour
9.6.7 Texture
9.6.8 Pattern
9.6.9 Height and Depth
9.6.10 Site, Situation, and Association
9.7 Interpretation Keys
9.8 Generation of Thematic Maps
9.9 Thermal Image Interpretation
9.9.1 Diurnal Heating Effects
9.9.2 Thermal Properties of Water and Land
9.9.3 Interpretation of Multispectral Thermal Image
9.10 Radar Image Interpretation
9.10.1 Tone
9.10.2 Colour
9.10.3 Shape, Structure, and Size
9.10.4 Speckle
9.10.5 Antenna Pattern
9.10.6 Texture
10. Digital Image Processing
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Categorization of Image Processing
10.3 Image Processing Systems
10.4 Digital Image
10.5 Media for Digital Data Recording, Storage, and Distribution
10.6 Data Formats of Digital Image
10.7 Header Information
10.8 Display of Digital Image
10.9 Pre-processing
10.9.1 Radiometric Correction of Remotely Sensed Data
10.9.2 Geometric Correction of Remotely Sensed Data
10.9.3 Miscellaneous Pre-processing
10.10 Image Enhancement
10.10.1 Image Reduction
10.10.2 Image Magnification
10.10.3 Colour Compositing
10.10.4 Transect Extraction
10.10.5 Contrast Enhancement
10.10.6 Filtering
10.11 Image Transformation
10.11.1 Image Arithmetic Operations
10.11.2 Principal Component Transformation
10.11.3 Tasselled Cap Transformation (KT Transformation)
10.11.4 Colour Space Transformation
10.11.5 Fourier Transformation
10.11.6 Image Fusion
10.12 Image Classification
10.12.1 Information Class and Spectral Class
10.12.2 Supervised Versus Unsupervised Classification
10.12.3 Decision Rules for Supervised Classification
10.12.4 Decision Rules for Unsupervised Classification
10.12.5 Subpixel Classification
10.12.6 Accuracy Assessment
10.12.7 Post-classification Processing
11. Data Integration, Analysis, and Presentation
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Multi-approach of Remote Sensing
11.2.1 MultiSensor, Multiplatform, and MultiResolution Images
11.2.2 Multi-Spectral Images
11.2.3 MultiTemporal/MultiSeasonal Images
11.2.4 Multistage, Multiplatform, MultiScale, and MultiResolution
11.2.5 MultiSource Data
11.3 Integration with Ground Truth and Other Ancillary Data
11.4 Integration of Transformed Data
11.5 Integration with GIS
11.6 Process of Remote Sensing Data Analysis
11.7 The Level of Detail
11.8 Limitations of Remote Sensing Data Analysis
11.9 Presentation
12. Applications of Remote Sensing
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Land Cover and Land Use
12.2.1 Land-use/Land-cover Change
12.2.2 Land-cover Mapping
12.3 Agriculture
12.3.1 Crop Type Mapping
12.3.2 Crop Monitoring and Crop Damage Assessment
12.4 Forestry
12.4.1 Clear-cut Mapping and Deforestation
12.4.2 Species Identification and Typing
12.4.3 Burn Mapping
12.5 Geology
12.5.1 Structural Mapping and Terrain Analysis
12.5.2 Lineament Extraction
12.5.3 Geologic Unit Mapping
12.6 Geomorphology
12.7 Urban Applications
12.8 Hydrology
12.8.1 Flood Delineation and Mapping
12.8.2 Soil Moisture
12.8.3 Groundwater Prospects and Recharge
12.9 Mapping
12.9.1 Planimetry
12.9.2 Digital Elevation Models
12.9.3 Topographic and BTM
12.10 Oceans and Coastal Monitoring
12.10.1 Ocean Features
12.10.2 Ocean Colour and Phytoplankton Concentration
12.10.3 Measurement of SST
12.10.4 Oil Spill Detection
12.10.5 Sea-Surface Height
12.10.6 Sea-Surface Roughness
12.10.7 Ship Routing
12.10.8 Sea Ice
12.11 Monitoring of Atmospheric Constituents
PART II Geographic Information Systems and Geospatial Analysis
13. Concept of Geographic Information Systems
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Definitions of GIS
13.3 Key Components of GIS
13.4 GIS-An Integration of Spatial and Attribute Information
13.5 GIS-Three Views of Information System
13.6 GIS and Related Terms
13.7 GIS-A Knowledge Hub
13.7.1 Geography
13.7.2 Cartography
13.7.3 Remote Sensing
13.7.4 Photogrammetry
13.7.5 Surveying
13.7.6 Geodesy
13.7.7 Global Navigation Satellite Systems
13.7.8 Statistics
13.7.9 Operations Research
13.7.10 Computer Science
13.7.11 Mathematics
13.7.12 Civil Engineering
13.8 GIS-A Set of Interrelated Subsystems
13.8.1 Data Processing Subsystem
13.8.2 Data Analysis Subsystem
13.8.3 Information Use Subsystem
13.8.4 Management Subsystem
13.8.5 Communication Subsystem
13.9 GIS-An Information Infrastructure
13.10 Origin of GIS
14. Functions and Advantages of GIS
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Functions of GIS
14.3 Application Areas of GIS
14.4 Advantages of GIS
14.4.1 Advantage over Traditional Map
14.4.2 Advantage over Mapping Software
14.4.3 Advantage over CAD
14.4.4 Advantage over AM/FM
14.4.5 Advantage over Conventional DBMS
14.4.6 Advantage of Analysis, Modelling, Presentation, and Decision Making
14.5 Functional Requirements of GIS
14.5.1 Relating Information from Different Sources
14.5.2 Data Capture
14.5.3 Database Storage and Management
14.5.4 Data Integration
14.5.5 Projection and Registration
14.5.6 Data Structures
14.5.7 Spatial Analysis
14.5.8 Data Modelling
14.5.9 Presenting Results
14.6 Limitations of GIS
15. Spatial Data Model
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Spatial, Thematic, and Temporal Dimensions of Geographic Data
15.3 Spatial Entity and Object
15.4 Spatial Data Model
15.4.1 Conceptual Data Model
15.4.2 Logical Data Model
15.4.3 Object-oriented Data Model
15.5 Raster Data Model
15.5.1 Field-based Raster Model
15.5.2 Object-based Raster Model
15.6 Vector Data Model
15.6.1 Object-based Vector Model
15.6.2 Field-based Vector Model
15.7 Raster versus Vector
15.8 Object-Oriented Data Model
15.8.1 Classification of Objects
15.9 File Formats of Spatial Data
16. Attribute Data Management and Metadata Concept
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Concept of Database and DBMS
16.2.1 Tables
16.2.2 Queries
16.2.3 Reports
16.2.4 Forms
16.3 Advantages of DBMS
16.4 Functions of DBMS
16.5 File and Data Access
16.5.1 Simple List
16.5.2 Ordered Sequential File
16.5.3 Indexed File
16.5.4 Databases
16.6 Data Models
16.7 Database Models
16.7.1 Object-based Model
16.7.2 Record-based Model
16.7.3 Physical Model
16.8 Data Models in GIS
16.9 Concept of SQL
16.10 Concept of Metadata
16.10.1 Role of Metadata in GIS
16.10.2 Metadata Standards
16.10.3 Metadata Formats
16.10.4 Questions to be Answered to Create Metadata
17. Process of GIS
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Data Capture
17.3 Data Sources
17.3.1 Conventional Analog Map Sources
17.3.2 Reports and Publications
17.3.3 Aerial Remote Sensing/Aerial Photography
17.3.4 Satellite Remote Sensing
17.3.5 Field Data Sources
17.3.6 Existing Digital Map Sources
17.4 Data Encoding Methods
17.4.1 Encoding Raster Data
17.4.2 Encoding Vector Data
17.4.3 Verification and Quality Checking of Vector Data
17.4.4 Vector Editing/Cleaning
17.4.5 Encoding Attribute Data
17.4.6 Digital File/Data Transfer
17.5 Linking of Spatial and Attribute Data
17.6 Organizing Data for Analysis
18. Geospatial Analysis
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Geospatial Data Analysis
18.3 Integration and Modelling of Spatial Data
18.4 Geospatial Data Analysis Methods
18.5 Database Query
18.5.1 Vector Data Query
18.5.2 Raster Data Query
18.6 Geospatial Measurements
18.6.1 Measurement of Density
18.6.2 Measurement of Distance
18.6.3 Measurement of Neighbourhood
18.7 Overlay Operations
18.7.1 Vector Overlay
18.7.2 Raster Overlay
18.8 Network Analysis
18.8.1 Network Tracing
18.8.2 Network Routing
18.8.3 Network Allocation
18.9 Surface Analysis
18.9.1 Deriving Contours/Isolines
18.9.2 Deriving Slope
18.9.3 Deriving Aspect
18.9.4 Hillshade Analysis
18.9.5 Viewshed Analysis
18.9.6 Watershed Analysis
18.9.7 Surface Intersection
18.10 Geostatistics
18.11 Geovisualization
18.11.1 Classification and Reclassification
18.11.2 Map Comparison
18.11.3 Chart
18.11.4 Report
18.11.5 Layout
18.11.6 3D Visualization
19. Planning, Implementation, and Management of GIS
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Planning of Project
19.2.1 Considering the Strategic Purpose
19.2.2 Plan for the Planning
19.2.3 Determine Technology Requirements
19.2.4 Describing Information Products
19.2.5 Defining System Scope
19.2.6 Designing Database
19.2.7 Choosing Logical Data Model
19.2.8 Determining System Requirements
19.2.9 Analysing Benefits and Costs
19.2.10 Implementation Plan
19.3 Implementation of Project
19.3.1 Procurement of Hardware and Software
19.3.2 Organization of Project Team
19.3.3 Training
19.3.4 Execution of Project
19.3.5 Quality Control and Quality Checking
19.3.6 Project Reporting
19.3.7 Project Meetings
19.4 Management of Project
19.4.1 Schedule/Time Management
19.4.2 Cost Management
19.4.3 Quality Management
19.4.4 Human Resource Management
19.4.5 Contract/Procurement Management
19.4.6 Communications Management
19.4.7 Scope Management
19.4.8 Risk Management
19.4.9 Project Integration Management
19.5 Keys for Successful GIS
19.6 Reasons for Unsuccessful GIS
20. Modern Trends of GIS
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Local to Global Concept in GIS
20.3 Increase in Dimensions in GIS
20.4 Linear to Non-linear Techniques in GIS
20.5 Development in Relation between Geometry and Algebra in GIS
20.6 Development of Common Techniques in GIS
20.7 Integration of GIS and Remote Sensing
20.8 Integration of GIS and Multimedia
20.8.1 Multimedia/Hypermedia GIS
20.8.2 Web GIS
20.9 3D GIS
20.9.1 Virtual Reality in GIS
20.10 Integration of 3D GIS and Web GIS
20.11 4D GIS and Real-time GIS
20.12 Mobile GIS
20.12.1 Mobile mapping
20.13 Collaborative GIS (CGIS)
21. Change Detection and Geosimulation
21.1 Visual change detection
21.2 Thresholding
21.3 Image difference
21.4 Image regression
21.5 Image ratioing
21.6 Vegetation index differencing
21.7 Principal component differencing
21.8 Multi-temporal image stock classification
21.9 Post classification comparison
21.10 Change vector analysis
21.12 Cellular automata simulation
21.13 Multi-agent simulation
21.4 ANN learning in simulation
Appendix A
Concept of Map, Coordinate System, and Projection
A.1 Introduction
A.2 What is Map?
A.2.1 How Maps Convey Location and Extent?
A.2.2 How Maps Convey Characteristics of Features?
A.2.3 How Maps Convey Spatial Relationships?
A.3 Orientation, Scale, Detail, Accuracy, and Resolution of Maps
A.4 Classification of Maps
A.4.1 Topographical Map by Survey of India
A.5 Coordinate System
A.5.1 Cartesian Coordinate System
A.5.2 Geographic Coordinate System
A.5.3 Projected Coordinate System
A.6 Projection
A.6.1 Selection of Map Projection
A.7 Classification of Map Projection
A.7.1 Cylindrical Projection
A.7.2 Conical Projection
A.7.3 Azimuthal Projection
A.7.4 Miscellaneous Projection
A.8 Projection Parameters
A.8.1 Linear Parameters
A.8.2 Angular Parameters
A.9 Common Map Projections
A.9.1 Polyconic Projection
A.9.2 Lambert's Azimuthal Equal-area Projection
A.9.3 UTM Projection
A.9.4 Latitude/Longitude Geographic Coordinates
Appendix B Concept on Mathematical Topics
B.1 Introduction
B.2 Number Systems
B.2.1 Conversion of Any Number to Decimal Number System
B.2.2 Conversion of Binary to Hexadecimal
B.2.3 Conversion of Hexadecimal to Binary
B.2.4 Conversion of Decimal to Any Other Number
B.2.5 Binary Addition
B.2.6 Complement
B.2.7 Representation of Negative Numbers
B.2.8 Floating-Point Number Representation
B.3 Matrix
B.3.1 Matrix Notation
B.3.2 Matrix Transposition
B.3.3 Summation of Matrix Elements
B.3.4 Matrix Multiplication
B.4 Polynomials
B.5 Digital Imagery Coordinate
B.6 Dimensionality of Image Data
B.7 Pixel Window
B.8 Image Histogram
B.9 Mean
B.10 Median
B.11 Mode
B.12 Variance
B.13 Standard Deviation
B.14 Covariance
B.15 Covariance Matrix
B.16 Measurement Vector
B.17 Mean Vector
B.18 Image Space and Feature Space
B.18.1 Feature Space Image
B.19 Factorial
B.20 Threshold
B.21 Fuzzy Logic
B.22 Artificial Neural Network
B.23 Greek Alphabets
Acronyms and Glossary
References
Index
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